15.I BASIC FEATURES OF THE SECTOR

15.I.1 General

15.I.1.1 Approximately 90 percent of Guyana’s population lives on a narrow coastal strip that accounts for only 5 percent of the country’s total land area. This coastal strip, which stretches between the country’s borders with Venezuela and Suriname, has rich alluvial soils suitable for the cultivation of rice, sugar cane, and other agricultural crops. Unfortunately, it lies between 1.5 to 3.5 feet below the mean high-water mark. The area therefore must be protected by defences to prevent inundation from the sea, and soil deterioration due to saline intrusion. Drainage, which is as important as sea defence, because the disposal of high surplus surface runoff by gravity is also complicated by the low level of the coastal plain, is effected through sea and river sluices which are opened during the low stage of the tide. Without these sea defences and a proper drainage system, all coastal property would be in jeopardy.

15.I.1.2 Compounding the difficulties of topography, are the problems that are inherent in the rainfall regime of the country. The average annual rainfall of Guyana is about 100 inches, with maxima and minima being 140 and 60 inches respectively. There are two distinct periods of high rainfall: May to June/July and November to December. In between these two wet seasons, there can be periods of severe drought.

15.I.1.3 The coastal plain of Guyana is also endowed with ground water. However, increasing demands for water for various uses severely challenge the availability of this resource. Perhaps not surprisingly, the competition of various uses – irrigated agriculture, the domestic sector, industry and commerce – is particularly felt in the dry seasons, during which severe water shortages are experienced throughout the country. The situation is aggravated by inappropriate water resource management, and inadequate institutional arrangements. Uncontrolled water withdrawal, inadequate water tariffs, an absence of economic incentives for water conservation, all contribute to the wasteful use of the water resource in both domestic and irrigation activities. Moreover, the environmental aspects of water development and urban sanitation are sometimes neglected and result in water contamination.

15.I.1.4 This coastal zone is protected from the intrusion of saline water by mangroves, dikes, sluices, and sea walls that have been built over the past two centuries. With the extensive drainage, irrigation and flood control network, the sea defences serve to make the coast habitable and cultivable. Without this hydraulic system, cultivation and settlement would have to be located much farther inland.

15.I.1.5 The area has a dense network of irrigation and drainage canals and other structures to provide water to the crops and keep it free from excess water for agriculture and other economic activities. The water for irrigation during moisture deficit periods is provided by conservancies which also serve to retain surplus rainwater, thus providing security against the flooding of the coastal plain. The conservancies and the drainage and irrigation infrastructure are, therefore, crucial to Guyana’s economy.

15.I.I.6 Until the mid 1970s, sea defences and drainage and irrigation accounted for most of Guyana’s capital expenditure. However, as has been frequently disclosed in this document, the country’s economy went into decline during the 1980s. The maintenance and repair of sea defences and drainage and irrigation works were therefore seriously neglected. Indeed, over the years approximately forty kilometres of sea defences have either collapsed or have been brought to the point of failure; and the drainage and irrigation system has been reduced to a state of total disarray.

15.I.2.1 Over the years, it has become understood that the design of sea defences must take into account the following five factors. First, the land level of the coast lies below that of mean high-water spring tides by about one metre; hence, any development along the coast must be protected against flooding during high tides; clay embankments are recommended, because they are inexpensive and watertight. Second, incoming waves, which are much higher during high tides, will break against any obstruction they encounter. Sea defence structures must therefore be resistant to wave action. Because earthen embankments will erode under such wave action, either the seaward face of the embankments must be adequately protected, or other forms of sea defences, e.g., concrete or sheet piling walls, should be used. Third, the foreshore of Guyana experiences the passage of large mud-banks that originate from deposits of the Amazon River. Wherever mud-banks are present, the foreshore will be high and sand and shell beaches may form. At locations between mud-banks, the foreshore will experience erosion and its levels will be much lower. The seaward toe of any sea defence at these locations should therefore be placed below the erosion or scour level, or else undermining, which will result in failure, will occur. Fourth, the fine nature of the predominant foreshore material does not encourage its deposition against barriers, so groynes are not very effective as protection structures. These structures are only useful where the transported material is sandy, and deposits easily. As such, groynes should be constructed only along the estuaries where sand is present. And fifth, the weak nature of the foreshore soils must be considered in sea defence designs. Embankments should therefore have gentle slopes or else the earth will slide and heavy structures will experience excessive settlement over time. Finally, it cannot be over-emphasized that the efficient operation of the sea defence system is dependent upon adequate maintenance.

15.I.3.1 In Guyana, the drainage and irrigation (D&I) system was developed by sugar estate owners along the coastlands to draw water from the marshy lands behind their estates. The irrigation system basically consists of primary and secondary canals. The primary canals draw water from the conservancies, or any perennial source such as a river, through a control structure/pump system at the head, and distributes it to the secondary system through a control mechanism for onward transfer to the fields. The drainage system also consists of secondary and primary drains, the latter of which generally discharge water to the rivers or the ocean through sluices. The system which is operated today is still much the same as it was when it was originally constructed. Many primary drains do not drain directly into the sea but into a facade drainage canal running parallel to the coastline, which in turn drains into the sea through a sluice. Drainage and irrigation for the whole area therefore is dependent on the effective management of the network.

15.I.3.2 The efficient operation of this system is also dependent on regular maintenance. Canals require weeding and clearing between two to three times a year. If this does not take place, the vegetation reduces the flow of water and causes the canals to silt up quickly. This of course further retards the flow. As a consequence, both agricultural productivity and production are considerably reduced.

15.I.4.1 The Hydrometeorological Service operates the National Meteorological Station Network (NMSN) and the National Hydrological Station Network (NHSN) and evaluates the climate and water resources. By collecting, processing, archiving, retrieving and analysing the data from both Networks, it is able to provide information to those agencies that are planning and designing agricultural and water development projects, and maintaining the sea defences. It also analyses the lower and upper atmospheric weather data of the western hemisphere, and disseminates the information to the aviation and other sectors.

15.I.4.2 Besides its regular duties the Hydrometeorological Service collects and analyses information on long-term climate trends, water flows and tides, thus serving as an early warning system for climate change.

15.II.1 Issues

Sea Defences.

15.II.1.1 The interval between the identification of critical sea defence areas which need maintenance or repairs, and the commencement of physical works is too long. The movement of mega mudbanks along the shoreline may result in dramatic changes that require a quick response. However, the current rules of the bureaucracy require that any contract of a value greater than G$6 million must go through the Central Tender Board. This is often time consuming and frequently leads to delays in project execution. A more flexible and practical system should therefore be devised to help in the more timely execution and implementation of such project activities.

15.II.1.2 Procurement of quarry products is a major item in sea defence works. Unfortunately despite the recent increase in competition through the resuscitation of a third quarry, the cost of quarry material remains high. It is hoped that the road and canal infrastructural work which has been prescribed in this National Development Strategy will assist in reducing the transportation costs of these materials.

15.II.1.3 The Sea and River Defence Board has the legal responsibility for all declared sea and river defences. The Hydraulic Division is the Board’s executing agency and is part of the Ministry of Public Works and Communications. As such, it shares the institutional problems common to all ministries. To overcome these limitations, the Project Execution Unit was formed in 1994 to manage donor agencies-funded programmes and to train counterpart staff. It has no formal legal mandate but was given some autonomy in accounting and procurement. It should be evident that the effective management of this organisation is vital if the limited skills that are available in this area in the country are to be effectively utilised. It is not at all certain that this qualify is to be found in this unit. A longer-run concern is that the Project Execution Unit was envisaged as a temporary unit. Therefore, after the donor-supported rehabilitation of sea defences is completed, there will be need for an effective, permanent agency to manage maintenance tasks and ensure that maintenance works are not again neglected.

15.II.1.4 New policies are needed to ensure adequate funding for maintenance of the sea walls on a continuing basis. The lack of such funding in the past has led to severe deterioration of the structures, and hence the current necessity to resort to external sources of funding for major rehabilitation.

15.II.1.5 Because of the stringent preconditions of the donor agencies, local and regional contractors find it difficult to pre-qualify for some sea defence projects. The contractual arrangements should be re-examined to enable local contractors to be eligible for at least the smaller projects. In addition, measures should be taken to encourage them to acquire relevant skills.

15.II.1.6 The finances provided under the current donor agencies programme fall in the range of US$6 million and US$14 million. This has led to restrictions in the selection of suitable contractors for the EC and IDA tenders, effectively excluding local contractors. Including them is likely to result in substantial reductions in the cost per kilometre of rehabilitating sea walls.

15.II.1.7 The Project Execution Unit is currently self-accounting. Auditing is undertaken by the Auditor General’s Office. Expenditure is recorded under two headings: "local expenditure" and "specific expenditure." The accounting of Hydraulics Department is managed through the Ministry of Public Works and Communication using the traditional public service accounting procedure. One system should be applied.

15.II.1.8 There are two principal reasons why the sea defences are in such deteriorated state today: lack of performance of regular maintenance duties over the years, and failure to protect the mangrove areas that once were very prevalent along the coast. The remaining mangrove zones must be urgently protected, and a gradual programme of reforestation of other areas should be undertaken. Experience throughout the world has underscored the necessity of working closely with artisanal fishermen and local communities in designing and implementing such programmes.

15.II.1.9 Sea defence data need to be upgraded and a monitoring programme established. Among the immediate requirements are hydrographic surveys and wave measurements. Aerial photography to help in the determination of land use patterns, the extent of mangroves, and the locations of sea defences should be undertaken and then repeated regularly to monitor changes. A programme for monitoring erosion and accretion should be put in place.

15.II.1.10 Guyana can ill afford to continue sea defence construction at current costs. Methods to reduce the financial requirements should be investigated.

Drainage and Irrigation.

15.II.1.11 There are too many agencies with a role to play in the management and operation of Guyana’s drainage and irrigation systems. In addition, the institutional framework is characterised by a lack of clear policy objectives, inadequate supervision and coordination, multiple overlapping jurisdictions, significant variations among Regions in organisation and effectiveness, and imprecise roles of the various agencies. The institutions also differ in professional capability, in their knowledge and utilisation of modern technology, and in their managerial infrastructure.

15.II.1.12 The level of technical education in water sciences in the regional engineering departments is poor, as is the level of education in the accounts section. Indeed there is no separate academic progamme for hydrology or water resources. There is also no short or long term training programme for middle level water sector professionals, sub-professionals, or other support functionaries.

15.II.1.13 The newly established National Drainage and Irrigation Board needs reinforcement in many departments. In addition, it ought to be linked to international centres of excellence in water sector management, in order to exchange experts, knowledge and information.

15.II.1.14 The present system allows for little or no direct involvement of farmers, although they are supposed to be the beneficiaries of the D&I system. They have almost no representation or voice in planning, and very little participation in maintenance. Thus, the group that has the greatest incentive to be involved in developing an efficient system is excluded from it.

15.II.1.15 Little consideration has been given to the role of D&I in the context of the country’s entire hydraulic system, and its impact on the water balance of the country. The interaction is only at the top level and that also is not very effective.

15.II.1.16 The key to the deterioration of the infrastructure is the failure to secure financing for operation and maintenance. The financing of operation and maintenance depends on the collection of drainage and irrigation rates, with the added complication of conservancy and land development scheme rates. The rates are low and collection is poor. Indeed, rate collection is currently only about 30%. Farmers are unwilling to pay for the poor quality of services currently being provided by public agencies, while the main reason for the poor services is the severe financial constraints experienced by these public agencies.

Hydrometeorological Service.

15.II.1.17 The National Meteorological and Hydrological Station Network has been affected over the past two decades by a lack of spare parts and the rapid loss of skilled staff. This has resulted in the closure of several important stations in the approved World Meteorological Organisation Network Design, and the consequential loss of data. Also, most stations are in remote hinterland areas which can be accessed only by aircraft and other expensive means of transportation.

15.II.1.18 The unit handling the hydrometeorological services needs strengthening both in terms of institutional infrastructure and personnel capacity building.

15.II.1.19 Approval has been given by Government to institute a system of charges for data supplied by the Hydrometeorological Service. It is a service-oriented organisation and forecasts have been generally issued free of cost to the media and all the interested agencies/individuals. However, charges are usually applied to specialised data requests, thus helping to offset partially the expenditures for these special investigations and field analyses. Overall, cost recovery has been very low and ways need to be sought to increase it.

15.II.1.20 With no specific mechanism in place for the recovery of the costs incurred in the maintenance of the sea defences, Guyana relies almost entirely on donor agencies to rehabilitate the critical areas. However, only the most urgent needs are being met. As a consequence there are many areas which are unrepaired and unmaintained. It is, therefore, no exaggeration to state that the coastal plain is always in imminent danger of inundation.

15.II.1.21 Because of the insufficiency of funds and the low salaries that are paid, a significant number of trained and capable staff has left the Hydraulics Division over the years.

15.II.1.22 The widespread lack of public awareness of the value of mangroves for sustaining marine fisheries and preventing the flooding and erosion of sea defences, has represented a major constraint in this sector. Equally, protection of coast-lands against the sea has been hindered by the lack of a forward-looking programme based on developing a consensus with coastal communities on how best to manage mangroves.

15.II.1.23 The sector suffers from a major shortage of trained and qualified personnel. The fundamental reason for this is the lack of training and educational facilities in water sciences.

Inadequate mapping

15.II.1.24 The NDIB which is now the custodian of the D & I system of the country does not have detailed documents which show the infrastructure of different areas. During the transfer of the Hydraulics Division from the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry of Works, all the maps and reports of the D & I system were retained by the Hydraulics Division. None is, therefore, available in the NDIB. The drawings, which are reported to be old and often do not show all vested works or residential areas, are also not available in the NBID. More seriously, works under the responsibility of the local authorities are not mapped. This obviously represents a major drawback in assessing what the scope of rehabilitation works in the D&I areas should be. The NDIB thus does not have precise information of the assets that are supposed to be under its control.

15.II.1.25 The Conservancy Boards are required to operate the head regulators on the conservancies but, in practice, little control is exercised by them, and water users have a lot of freedom to interfere with the gates. This is a serious problem, as the assessment of water availability and water needs should determine irrigation flows. In fact, the available information on the water potential of the conservancies lies almost exclusively in the hands of on the sugar estates. Consequently, the interests of one group of water users, the sugar growers, tend to guide water-use decisions. Ideally, a body that is independent of the water users, or a representative group of farmers of all interests, should undertake and be responsible for the distribution of water. However, without the support of the sugar estates, it is likely that the system would have collapsed totally. With the establishment of the National Drainage & Irrigation Board, it is appropriate that the conservancies now operate under this national institution.

15.III.1 The overall objectives of the sector are, in respect of sea defences, to ensure that the assets, productivity and livelihood of those Guyanese who inhabit the coastal belt are protected from the ravages of the Atlantic Ocean and, in regard to drainage and irrigation, to contribute to the national goal of equitable and rapid economic growth by facilitating increased agricultural production and other economic activity on the coastland. The objective of the Hydrometeorological Service is to support sea defence, and irrigation and drainage activities, through the provision of services to all water-using organisations, as well as to such users as airport and port authorities.

15.IV.1 A National Water Commission, (NWC) responsible to a Cabinet Sub-committee, which shall oversee and co-ordinate the activities of all water related agencies will be established. Representatives of the main water-users will be on the Commission.

15.IV.2 The NWC will also be authorised to formulate the mechanisms for the implementation of this National Water Strategy.

15.IV.3 A standardised national electronic water information system, with a network of data banks and compatible data bases allowing for exchange of data, will be established. Apart from the data on water availability and actual water use, the system will include a facility for comprehensive and reliable timely projections of future demands for water for diverse purposes.

15.IV.4 Periodic assessments of both surface and ground water resources, and their utilizable component on a basin - wise basis, will be conducted.

15.IV.5 There will be a closer integration of water use and land use policies. The planning of water use will take into account land capability and will be supportive of land improvement.

15.IV.6 Legislation will be enacted to ensure that ground water is utilised only for domestic purposes, until additional exploitation is supported by confirmation of the sustainability of ground water supplies. Ground water is of immense value and a natural resource which may or may not be sustainable in Guyana. Until adequate recharge is assured, groundwater will be utilised for domestic uses only.

15.IV.7 A public awareness strategy will be mounted to emphasise the value of both surface and ground water resources. Users will be encouraged to utilise more surface water as this is available abundantly in relation to the country’s present and future needs. This strategy will not only conserve ground water, but will also prevent salt water intrusion in the coastal aquifers.

15.IV.8 Surface water storage facilities for agricultural, domestic and other uses will be established. The available information indicates that there is competition for this commodity during times of scarcity. This competition is not due to inadequate rainfall, but to avoidable spillage and inadequate storage.

15.IV.9 Cost recovery programmes will be adopted. However, the price charged for water will take into consideration the feasible level of recovery from the user.

15.IV.10 Low rainfall areas will be made less vulnerable to drought-associated problems through soil moisture conservation measures and the transfer of surface water from surplus areas where feasible.

15.IV.11 The drainage of agriculture and homestead lands will be an integral component of water, urban and sea defence planning.

15.IV.12 Water resource development projects will, as far as possible, be planned and developed as multipurpose projects, with the basin as the unit of planning. Hydropower development will receive prime consideration.

15.IV.13 The erosion of land, and the ingress of salt water, whether by the sea in coastal areas or by river water inland, will be minimised by suitable cost effective measures.

15.IV.14 The institutions tasked with the development and management of water resources for different uses and purposes will be adequately strengthened in terms of modern technology and professional capability.

15.IV.15 Training programmes will be organised in the latest project planning and management methods.

15.IV.16 International donor-funded contracts will be split, wherever feasible, to allow regional and local contractors to participate.

15.IV.17 Local contractors will be encouraged and assisted to form joint ventures to tender for the larger projects.

15.IV.18 A sea defence maintenance tax will be instituted, and will be paid by all those living on the coastal belt, that are not exempt from the paying of income tax. The revenue collected by way of this mechanism will be deposited in a special account for the maintenance of sea defences.

15.IV.19 The priority for the maintenance and repair of sea defences, until the system becomes routine and all sea defences are intact, will be based on the areas along the coastland that require immediate protection. Land use and shallow foreshore levels will be the main criteria used for selection, with housing areas being afforded the main priority. These areas will include the Essequibo Coast between Supenaam and Maria’s Delight, Wakenaam, Leguan, East Bank Essequibo, East and West Demerara and No. 78 and No. 83 on the Corentyne Coast.

15.IV.20 In areas where there are no residences, retirement of the sea defence line, when breached, will be the main criterion for intervention. If a small section of an exposed coastline is protected, then continued erosion upstream and downstream will require additional lengths of the shoreline to be protected or a headland will be created.

15.IV.21 It has been the experience that the time span between critical area identification and the commencement of physical works has been too long. The Project Executing Unit will maintain and update at appropriate intervals records of critical areas. In addition donor agencies will be asked to expedite procurement procedures.

15.IV.22 Together with rock armouring protection, other viable methods of defence, including the management of mangrove forests and the placement of groynes, will be pursued. Mangrove management will be actively implemented in the areas between Mahaica and Rosignol; and in the lower Corentyne areas.

15.IV.23 The construction of houses and other buildings, and the installation of supporting infrastructure, will be prohibited within a certain distance of the sea defences. This distance will vary along the country’s coastline, but will not be less than 200 feet. At locations along the coast where there is no intensive housing development, any plans for such development will be revisited, taking into consideration the need for present and future sea defence protection. Future housing development will be restricted to areas south of the Public Road, as far as possible.

15.IV.24 In order to optimise the sustainable operation and maintenance of the drainage and irrigation system, the newly formed D&I Board will develop a simplified, two-tier institutional structure, which will be financially viable.

15.IV.25 Farmers themselves will determine the most appropriate institutional arrangement for managing the secondary systems in their localities, whether through the existing Local Government Authorities (LGAs) or through the Water Users’ Associations (WUAs).

15.IV.26 The Board will support and encourage the formation of associations of farmers who will be responsible for the operation and maintenance of secondary systems. Once fully operational, these WUAs will be self-financing, self-regulating, and self-governing, and will assume full control over the secondary system in their localities. The Board will also propose a legislative framework within which the WUAs will operate.

15.IV.27 Where farmers are satisfied with the current institutional arrangement, the Board will support and strengthen the capacity of the LGAs to administer the operation and maintenance of secondary systems by providing training, advice and support.

15.IV.28 Water users, whether through WUAs or LGAs, will bear in full the costs of the operation and maintenance of drainage and irrigation of secondary systems. The rates set and collected by the WUA or LGA will eventually cover all costs associated with the secondary system. In addition, farmers will pay rates to cover costs for the operation and maintenance of primary irrigation canals, and to contribute to the operation and maintenance of conservancies.

15.IV.29 The Board will establish standards for operation and maintenance, implementation and monitoring of the activities of the local level entities, and for ensuring that the secondary system functions satisfactorily, in an environmentally sound manner.

15.IV.30 In order to increase agricultural production and productivity in Guyana, D & I services will be improved and extended to include:-

- rehabilitation and modernisation of the existing D & I system with façade drain and pumped drainage as integral components;

- the placement of D & I facilities in unserviced areas that are already under cultivation;

- special schemes for islands; and

- modern D & I facilities to new potential agricultural area.

15.IV.31 Those hydrometeorological stations which now exist but are not being utilised will be reactivated. In addition the number of stations will be increased, in order to improve the design network for enhancing forecasting capabilities.

15.IV.32 Staff skills will be improved through seminars, and on-the-job training. Research capabilities and other related skills will be further developed.

15.IV.33 Real time data transmission from remote stations to the central station via satellite will be effected.

15.IV.34 The Hydrometeorological Service will be made functionally autonomous. It will continue, however, to receive funds from the public treasury.

15.IV.35 The Service will determine prices to be charged for information, to offset the expenditures it incurs. It will begin to levy charges on users such as airport authorities and water related agencies which, to date, have been receiving these services free.

15.IV.36 All development projects will be examined by the hydromet services with a view to assessing the relevant data/ information used in project planning/ design.

15.IV.37 The Hydrometeorological Service will be a permanent member on the water boards and other related agencies.